The political history of Europe is characterised, well into the 18th century, by traditional social hierachies, by regional and confessional identities and, last but not least, by the dynastic agendas and ambitions of monarchical rulers. From the late 18th century onwards, however, the concept of ‘nations’ and ‘national states’ based on a legally equal and culturally uniform citizenry becomes more and more powerful and starts to shape the identities and policies of states. The transition from a pre-modern to a modern concept of statehood – from a political system functioning on the basis of inherited personal and corporate rights and through personal ties of patronage and shared interests between the ruler and the elites, to a system based on equal citizenship of all and the rights and duties it brought with it – caused multiple frictions and characterised many of the political struggles of the 19th century. Most notably, while governments sought to enlarge their field of activity, growing parts of society wanted to take part in the decision-making processes, thus fuelling a process of democratisation that took on a different pace in different countries. Growing interference of the state also meant growing responsibilities, amongst others, in the fields of social welfare and economic prosperity, thus increasing the need of governments to legitimise their decisions. Finally, new forms of social and political inclusion and exclusion on the basis of ‘nationhood’ began to replace the older hierarchical structure of society, whilst on the same basis, new political entities were created, whereas others were destroyed. In this lecture, we will have a close look at the formation and transformation of national states from the 18th century till today – with all the benefits, but also all the internal and external problems and destructions it has caused.